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The weeks leading up to Russia's invasion of Ukraine saw intense military activity as thousands of Russian troops built up along the border with Ukraine. The plan was to take Kyiv, and a swift conclusion was anticipated. That expectation has turned out to be at odds with reality. The war has raged on for weeks, and although Russia has advanced in some parts of Ukraine causing serious pain and damage with heavy bombardments, progress has been slow. Russia may have overestimated its own capabilities - but it also seems to have underestimated the organisation and resilience of the opposition.

Liam Collins, the founding director of the Modern War Institute in New York, explains how even though the Ukrainian military is currently fighting a considerably bigger opponent, its planning, motivation and implementation of tactics has exposed the shortcomings of Russia鈥檚 modernised military. Its troops have met fiercer resistance than expected when trying to encircle Kyiv. Ukrainian counterattacks have stalled advances in other areas. He says this comes from a long history in Ukraine of planning for a possible Russian invasion, which led to sweeping reforms across five broad categories command and control, planning, operations, medical and logistics and professionalisation of the force. Ukraine also has a history of volunteers, and these civilians and trained reservists ahave also been taking Russia by surprise - so not only do the Russians have to contend with the Ukrainian forces that are there, they have to fight through all the armed volunteers.

Photo: A civilian trains to throw a Molotov cocktail In Zhytomyr, Ukraine Credit: Reuters